Communication Theory

Communication is effective and successful only when the recipient gets the same msg as intended by the sender.

Communication process – Sending, encoding, channel, decoding, receiving & getting feedback.

"Communication" can be defined as 'the exchange of information, ideas and knowledge between sender and receiver through an accepted code of symbols.'

The msg encoding is thru words, actions, signs etc. Receiver decodes it. Receiver’s response is called feedback.

The essentials of effective communication are:
1. A common communication environment

2. Cooperation between the sender and receiver
3. Selection of an appropriate channel

4. Correct encoding and decoding of the message

5. Receipt of the desired response or feedback.

Characteristics of general Communication:
1.      Contains a general message
2.      Informal in style and approach
3.      No set pattern of Communication
4.      Mostly oral
5.      Not always for a specific audience
6.      Doesn't involve the use of technical vocabulary

Characteristics of technical Communication:
1.      Contains a technical msg
2.      Mostly formal
3.      Follows a set pattern
4.      Both oral and written
5.      Always for a specific audience
6.      Frequently involves jargon, graphics, etc.

LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
1.      Extrapersonal Communication

Communication between human beings and non-human entities. For example, communication between you n your pet
2.      Intrapersonal Communication

This takes place within the individual. The electrochemical impulse that the brain sends and receives is a message included in this type
3.      Interpersonal Communication

Sharing of information among people.

Interpersonal Communication differs from other forms of Communication. In this there are few participants involved, the interactants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate. This can be formal or informal.
4.      Organizational Communication

Communication in an organization takes place at different levels. Large number of employees, therefore there should be a proper networking system.

This kind of Communication can be divided into:

• Internal-operational: all Communication that occurs in conducting work within an org is classified as int-operational
• External-operational: the work related Communication that an org does with ppl outside the org is called ext-operational
• Personal: all Communication in an org that occurs without a purpose as far as business is concerned is called personal Communication.

5.      Mass Communication

For a large audience that is heterogeneous and anonymous. The several media are journals, books, newspapers, television, radio, social networking sites, circulars, pamphlets, etc. oral Communication requires equipments such as microphones, amplifiers, visual media, etc.

Characteristics of this type of Communication are: Large reach, impersonality, presence of a gatekeeper.
Gatekeeper: One who monitors or oversees the actions of others.  A mediator. For example, a newspaper editor is a gatekeeper.

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION

Information of various kinds flowing through formal channels, such as policy or procedural changes, orders, instructions, confidential reports, etc., is classified as formal communication.

Downward Communication

When managers inform, instruct, advise or request their subordinates

Upward Communication

When subordinates send reports to their superiors.

Lateral or Horizontal Communication

This Communication takes place among peer group or hierarchically equivalent employees

Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication

Flows in all direction

Eg. Sales manager communicates directly with V.President (production), who is not only in a different division, but also at a higher level in the org

Channels of Communication in an Organization

1.       Internal

1.1.    Formal

1.1.1. Vertical

1.1.1.1.  Upward

1.1.1.2. Downward

1.1.2. Horizontal or Lateral

1.1.3. Diagonal or Crosswise

1.2.    Informal

1.2.1. Grapevine Communication

2.       External

2.1.    Inward

2.2.    Outward

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

A barrier is an obstacle which prevents something from getting through to the destination or the receiver. Barriers may lead to your messages getting distorted.

Types of barriers are as follows:

1.      Personal / Socio-Psychological Barriers: The psychological state of the receiver will influence on how the message is received.

a.      Unjust assumptions: People may make various assumptions on what they see or perceive.

b.      Closed mindedness: Certain people think they know everything about a particular subject and are not prepared to accept that they can be mistaken. Statements like, “Women cannot be superior to men” or, “Young people are irresponsible” are signs of closed mindedness which is a barrier in communication.

c.       Snap reactions: Sometimes people are in a hurry to make conclusions about certain things. For example, an audience may regard the speaker as boring with his/her opening remarks and may switch off mentally.

d.      Defensiveness: Trying to rationalize one’s mistake to avoid degradation of his status is another barrier.

e.      Halo and Horns effect: Communication with people depends with our past experience with them. Having a bad experience with a particular person in the past may prevent us from communicating freely.

f.        Stress: A person who is stressed won’t be able to communicate because his/her mind is pre-occupied with personal worries.

g.      Attitudes and values: Many people are raised on the value system of their parents; shedding those values from one’s upbringing can be difficult and may be a barrier in communication.

h.      Filtering: A bad day may make it difficult to speak or listen. This is known as filtering. You are so occupied with your needs that your emotional state is guiding and dictating the communication.

i.        Poor listening: Most common barrier is lack of attention on the listener’s part. This happens when people are forced to listen to information that is either irrelevant to them or when it’s not of their interest.

j.        Self image: An individual has an image of himself which is his “Self Image”. So the person is attentive only to those messages which boost his self image and reject messages which threaten that self image. This is a kind of selective listening.

Overcoming Personal / Socio-psychological barriers: Keep an open mind, be open to change, be sensitive, build on a positive experience and be focused.

2.      Physical / Environmental Barriers:

a.      External noise: Traffic or loud music \m/

b.      Environmental stress: High temperature, humidity, wrong choice of font colours used for a power point presentation.

c.       Physical stress: Health issues.

d.      Time: If an organization has clients all over the world, then it may create a barrier as the time zones are different.

e.      Distance: Partitions, walls, large furniture etc., may create barriers for employees working in a company.

f.        Intricate lines of communication: In large organizations, the chains of communications are intricate which increases chances of distortion.

g.      Ignorance of medium: Use of improper and unfamiliar medium may turn the medium into a barrier.

Overcoming Physical / Environmental barriers: Open layout plan, minimize noise, use technology, mutual adjustments, using streamline procedures and providing environmental comfort.

3.      Mechanical Barriers: Mechanical barrier stems from a problem in machinery or instruments used to transmit the message.

a.      Defects in machinery: Over time use and improper maintenance. Small font used in a newspaper.

b.      Transmission interruption: Interruption in satellite communication.

c.       No access to vital devices: Hearing aid, amplifiers, telephones etc.

d.      Power failure: Power failures shutdown electrically generated devices used for communication.

e.      Information overloaded: Too many messages jammed at the same time in a network cause a problem in transmission.

Overcoming mechanical barriers: Ensure good working conditions and arrange for an adequate backup.

4.      Semantic / Linguistic Barriers: Semantics is related to meaning of words.

a.      Existence of different language: several languages and dialects (A particular form of a language that is peculiar to a specific region or social group).

b.      Faulty translation: Grammatical errors.

c.       Use of jargon: the term jargon refers to specialized vocabulary that people belonging to a professional group might use. It should be used only while communicating with people belonging to the same profession. When used with a layperson, it may cause confusion and misunderstanding.

d.      Connotative and Denotative meaning of words: Denotative means “Dictionary definition”, whereas connotative refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word.

e.      Multiple meaning: Let’s take an example of the word ‘fare’. It may mean a ‘bus fare’ or also when it’s used to ask, “How did you fare in your exams”.

f.        Homonyms: Two words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings as well.

g.      Different accents: People of different countries may speak in English, but the accents are different in different countries.
Overcoming semantic / linguistic barriers: Learn new languages, speak slowly and clearly, ask for clarification, check for understanding, limit the use of jargon and provide information via multiple channels.

5.       Cross – Cultural Barriers: Occurs when people of different cultures meet.

a.      Language: In the same language, the same words with slight variations may cause a barrier. For example, use of ‘Yeah’ instead of ‘Yes’ by a person may label him as rude or disrespectful.

b.      Dressing: Not following the dress code may invite disapproving looks and would cause prejudice in people’s mind.

c.       Body language: Body language speaks the person’s character.

d.      Food: People who prefer vegetarian food may not be comfortable enough to sit with a person who prefers non-vegetarian food.

e.      Space: In some cultures, people stand close to each other when they talk, whereas people of other cultures would like to keep a distance.

f.        Use of time: Time and punctuality is very much appreciated.

g.      Attitudes and behavior: Feeling of superiority over other cultures is a great barrier.
Overcoming cross – cultural barriers: Study the culture before communicating, respect others, attend cross – cultural training programmes and keep an open mind

6.      Organizational Barriers:

a.      Complexity in organizational structure: Greater the hierarchy, more the distortion.

b.      Status differences: Differences in authority of employees creates a barrier in communication.

c.       Job specialization: Increasing specialization may create a barrier where an employee belonging to one department may not mingle with people of other departments.

d.      Information ownership: An individual may not want to share specific information with others because it would mean dilution of his power base.

e.      Time pressures: Deadlines may result in messages and information being distorted.

f.        Information overload: Too much information for a person may reduce his ability to concentrate effectively.

Overcoming organizational barriers: Use multiple means of communication, increase communication among different levels, give clear and concrete instructions, minimize status barriers and create an atmosphere of trust.

High level global books may categorize types of barriers as follows:

Intrapersonal barriers

1.      Wrong assumptions

2.      Varied perceptions

3.      Differing background

4.      Wrong inferences

5.      Impervious categories

6.      Categorical thinking

Interpersonal barriers

1.      Limited vocabulary

2.      Incongruity of verbal & non-verbal messages

3.      Emotional outburst

4.      Communication selectivity

5.      Cultural variations

6.      Poor listening skills

7.      Noise in the channel

Organizational barriers

1.      Too many transfer stations

2.      Fear of superiors

3.      Negative tendencies

4.      Use of inappropriate media

5.      Information overload

FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Includes oral and written Communication

1.       Effective Speaking:

a.       Presentation and speeches

b.      Planning

I.                    Occasion

II.                  Audience

III.                Purpose

IV.                Thesis

V.                  Material

c.       Structuring

I.                    Introduction

II.                  Main body

III.                Conclusion

d.      Preparing an outline

e.      Delivery

Types of delivery

I.                    Speaking from notes

II.                  Speaking from memory

III.                Reading from a manuscript

f.        Controlling nervousness and stage fright

2.       Writing

a.       Right words and phrases

I.                    Use familiar words

II.                  Use concrete and specific words

III.                Use abbreviations sparingly

IV.                Avoid clichés

V.                  Avoid excessive use of jargon

VI.                Avoid foreign words and phrases

VII.              Avoid redundancy and circumlocution

VIII.            Avoid discriminatory writing

b.      Sentences

c.       Salient points of sentence construction

I.                    Prefer short sentences

II.                  Break the sentence

III.                Be stringent with words

IV.                Prefer right ordering and proper emphasis

V.                  Prefer active voice

VI.                Avoid ambiguous (unclear or having a double meaning) sentences

d.      Sequencing of sentencing

3.       Reading

a.       Predicting the text

b.      Skimming the text

c.       Understanding the gist

d.      Topic sentence and it’s role

e.      Scanning

f.        Inferring meanings: Lexical and contextual

g.       Note – making

I.                    Outline / linear method

II.                  Sentence method

III.                Schematic / mapping method

h.      Transfer of information

I.                    Visual aids

II.                  Interpreting and transferring

III.                Graphical information

i.         Understanding discourse coherence

4.       Effective listening

a.       Process of listening

b.      Poor listening habits

c.       Types of listening

I.                    Informative listening

II.                  Attentive listening

III.                Relationship listening (Empathetic listening)

IV.                Appreciative listening

V.                  Critical listening

VI.                Discriminative listening

d.      Effective and ineffective listening skills

e.      Strategies for effective listening

I.                    Decide what are your goals for the conversation

II.                  Be aware of your options

f.        Payoffs of effective listening

g.       Barriers to effective listening

h.      Active and passive listening

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

1.      Kinesics (Body Language)

a.      Personal appearance

b.      Eye contact

c.       Gestures

d.      Touch

e.      Facial expressions

f.        Postures

2.      Haptics (Communication through touch)

3.      Proxemics (Distance/Space)

a.      Intimate

b.      Personal

c.       Social

d.      Public

4.      Chronemics (Time)

5.      Paralinguistics (Voice Modulation)

a.      Quality

b.      Volume

c.       Pace/Rate

d.      Pitch

e.      Articulation

f.        Pronunciation

g.      Voice modulation

h.      Pauses
i.        Effect of silence